The Evolution of International Organizations
19th Century Origins of International Organizations
International organizations first emerged in the 19 th century in Europe as a result of both wars and conference diplomacy between European powers.
Several key organizations were established in the aftermath of major European wars. The Napoleonic Wars, which ravaged Europe from 1803-1815, led to the creation of the Central Commission for Navigation of the Rhine in 1815 to oversee navigation on the Rhine River. After the Crimean War of 1853-1856, the Superior Council or Health in Constantinopel was established in 1838 to coordinate quarantine and public health policies. And after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, the European Commission for the Control of the Danube was created in 1856 to administer navigation and economic development on the Danube River.
In addition, a series of conferences and diplomatic agreements between European powers known as the Concert of Europe also spurred the creation of international organizations. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 established a framework for cooperation and conflict resolution between European states. This led to additional agreements like the 1865 International Telegraph Union to coordinate international telegraph networks and services. The Universal Postal Union was created in 1874 to standardize postal policies and regulations across Europe.
Outside of Europe, the International Union of American Republics was founded in 1890 by nations across North, Central and South America. This organization later evolved into the Pan American Union in 1910, and eventually the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1948, serving as a forum for cooperation, trade, and dispute resolution across the Americas. The establishment of the OAS is sometimes seen as the beginnings of international organizations outside of Europe.
Overall, the 19 th century saw the emergence of the first modern international organizations, created both as pragmatic solutions to coordinate interests between European powers and also as part of attempts to build stability and cooperation after major wars on the continent. This laid the foundation for more ambitious global institutions that would arise in the 20 th century.
League of Nations
The League of Nations was established in 1919 as part of the Versailles Peace Treaty that ended World War I. Its mandate was to maintain international peace by having members submit their disputes for arbitration and avoid war as a means to solve conflicts until three months of peaceful attempts had been made.
The League had several prominent supporters, including US President Woodrow Wilson, who played a key role in its establishment. The League’s headquarters was located in Geneva, Switzerland.
Despite its noble goals, the League of Nations ultimately failed and collapsed in 1939 on the eve of World War II. It was unable to prevent aggression by expansionist powers like Nazi Germany and imperial Japan in the 1930 s. This highlighted the League’s lack of any meaningful enforcement capability.
International Labor Organization (ILO)
The International Labor Organization (ILO) was established in 1919 as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I. The ILO was created in response to concerns about labor conditions and exploitation of workers in industrializing nations.
The ILO’s founding purpose was to pursue social justice and lasting peace through improving labor standards. Its founders believed that poor labor conditions could lead to unrest, conflict and war within and between nations.
The ILO has a tripartite structure with representation from governments, employers, and workers. Its members include both states and non-state actors. The ILO brings together these diverse voices to set international labor standards, develop policies and devise programs promoting decent work for all.
Some key activities of the ILO include:
- Developing international labor standards through conventions and recommendations
- Monitoring and reporting on implementation of labor standards
- Providing policy advice and technical assistance to member states
- Conducting research and generating statistics on labor issues
- Bringing together governments, employers and workers to negotiate solutions
Through its first 100 years, the ILO has adopted 189 conventions and 204 recommendations covering a broad spectrum of workplace issues. The ILO continues to promote social justice through international cooperation on labor rights and protections.
Post WWII International Organizations
The most significant international organizations were established in the aftermath of World War II, reflecting a desire for greater global cooperation.
The United Nations (UN) was founded in 1945 to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, and promote social progress. The UN headquarters is located in New York and includes the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and the UN Secretariat. All member states are represented in the General Assembly while the Security Council consists of 5 permanent members and 10 non-permanent members.
The World Bank was conceived in 1944 at the Bretton Woods conference along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It is headquartered in Washington D.C. and aims to reduce poverty by providing loans, guarantees, risk management products, and advisory services to developing countries. The World Bank Group consists of 5 organizations: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation (IFC), Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was also established in 1944 at Bretton Woods to promote global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty. It is based in Washington D.C. and has 189 member countries. A key function is stabilizing exchange rates and facilitating the growth of international trade.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947 to establish multilateral principles and rules for addressing barriers to international trade. This was replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 which provides a framework for negotiating trade agreements and resolving disputes among member states. The WTO is based in Geneva.
Regional Organizations
Regional organizations began to emerge in the mid 20 th century as ways for geographically-linked nations to cooperate on issues of mutual interest. The first major regional organization was the European Union (EU), which was founded as the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951. Its original members were France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Over the decades it expanded in membership, scope, and powers to become the EU.
Another early regional organization was the Arab League, founded in 1945 by Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen. Its goal was to strengthen ties between Arab states. Over time, other Arab nations joined and it continues to function today with 22 members.
In the decades that followed, many other regional organizations developed across the globe, especially starting in the 1950 s as decolonization created many new nations. These include the Organization of American States (OAS), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), African Union (AU), and many others. Regional bodies now exist on every continent. They vary in size, purpose, and powers, but generally aim to facilitate cooperation on issues like economic integration, security, or cultural ties between neighboring countries.
International Relations Theory on IOs
Pre-1945 Perspectives
In the period before 1945, the study of international organizations was largely descriptive and drew from legal and political science perspectives. Scholars examined multilateral treaties and compared the structures and procedures of different organizations. This early work did not emerge from the field of international relations, which had not yet fully developed. With the establishment of the UN and other postwar organizations, scholarship shifted to analyzing their design and impacts on domestic politics. Journals such as the Journal of International Organizations provided outlets for this emerging research.
Post-1945 Perspectives
In the 1960 s, scholars began applying social scientific methodology to the study of international organizations. This included statistical analysis of voting behavior in IOs. Attention also turned to analyzing the new experiments in European economic integration from theoretical frameworks like functionalism and neofunctionalism. The focus was largely on the technical and functional issues handled by organizations like the European Coal and Steel Community.
1970s Perspectives
In the 1970 s, regime theory became influential in IO scholarship. Realist and neorealist theories also dominated, with their emphasis on states as the key actors while treating IOs mainly as instruments of states. The role and power of states within IOs was the priority in this period.
1980s Perspectives
By the 1980s, neoliberal institutionalism emerged as a challenge to realist views of IOs. Neoliberal institutionalism sees IOs as independent actors in their own right, rather than just tools of states. This view argues IOs have autonomy and influence of their own.
Pre-1945 Perspectives
In the decades before 1945, the study of international organizations was limited and descriptive in nature, emerging from academic fields such as law and political science rather than the nascent field of international relations.
Scholars focused primarily on analyzing multilateral treaties that established international organizations, as well as comparing the structures and procedures of different organizations. For example, the 1864 Geneva Convention and 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which established the International Committee of the Red Cross and League of Nations respectively, were studied in detail.
There was also some examination of the domestic impacts of international organizations within member states. However, without the methodological developments of the postwar period, this analysis remained largely anecdotal. Overall, the pre-1945 study of international organizations lacked a coherent theoretical framework and was characterized more by legal and procedural descriptions rather than social scientific analysis.
Post-1945 Perspectives
The period after World War II saw a renewed interest in studying international organizations from the emerging field of international relations. There was a particular focus on the new experiments in economic integration happening in Europe at the time.
The theories of functionalism and neo-functionalism arose to explain this European integration. Functionalism argued that integration should start in non-political, technical areas. Cooperation in these functional, technical areas would create spillover effects into further political and economic integration.
Neo-functionalism built on this theory. It argued that the real engine of integration came from non-state actors like commercial groups and trade unions. These societal interest groups would pressure governments for further integration once cooperation started in narrow technical areas.
Both theories saw European integration as starting modestly in areas like coal and steel. But they predicted integration would spill over into more areas, eventually leading to some kind of European federation. The initial success of organizations like the European Coal and Steel Community provided evidence for these theories in the 1950 s.
1970s Perspectives
In the 1970s, the focus was on regime theory and the domination of realist and neorealist perspectives in international relations theory. According to realism and neorealism, the state remains the central actor in international relations, while international organizations are merely tools of states to pursue their interests.
Realists argue that international organizations have no independent power or authority beyond what states choose to give them. States use international organizations instrumentally, only participating and complying when it aligns with their national interests. From a realist view, international organizations reflect the distribution of power in the international system. Powerful states dominate decision-making and marginalize weaker states. International organizations are arenas for power politics between states.
Neorealists further contend that international organizations have little independent effect on state behavior. States design and shape international institutions to serve their interests. Institutions are not autonomous actors, but rather a reflection of the interests and preferences of the most powerful states in the system. International organizations do not fundamentally alter state behavior or the structure of the international system.
In summary, realist and neorealist scholars in the 1970s emphasized state centrality and minimized the independent role of international organizations in global politics. This differed from more liberal institutional perspectives emerging in the 1980s.